Behavioral Influences / Leadership / Performance Evaluation Essay free essay sample

Introduction Expectancy theory is related to the motivation of the employees which is dependent upon the employees’ behavior and incentives given by the management. If the management is able to motivate its employees they will put in more effort while working, which means efficiency higher returns for the company. The three components of the expectancy theory are expectancy, valence and instrumentality (Vroom, 1964).All of these three variables are required if an employee needs to be motivated positively. The expectancy component is the belief that increase in efforts will accounts for better performance and vice versa. This means that a person is motivated if there is a positive relationship between efforts and performance given that he has proper training, resources and direction to perform the job. Expectancy is also affected by the confidence the employee has about on his capabilities. Valence component in the expectancy theory refers to the value people place on the expected outcome or rewards of their efforts. We will write a custom essay sample on Behavioral Influences / Leadership / Performance Evaluation Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page If a person is motivated mainly by money, he might not value free insurance given by the company. Valence is the intensity of the desire of a worker for extrinsic and intrinsic rewards such as promotion, fringe benefits, bonuses, overtime and satisfaction (Droar, 2003).Instrumentality, the third component of expectancy theory is the confidence on the higher authorities that if the performance is well, the desired or promised reward will be received (Vroom, 1964). Instrumentality will be affected by the trust in people who make decisions of the outcomes and degree of business of the process of getting an outcome. Therefore the theory tells us that the relationship between the effort and performance is positive, which means that increase in effort will enhance performance (Vroom, 1964). Body According to the theory the relationship between performance and rewards is also positive, which implies that better performance will result in more rewards.In the given scenario, Supervisor A’s employees are facing difficulty in coping up with the new production process. The main reason for this is that the employees are not being compensated for their work. Those who achieve their goals are not given enough compensation therefore they feel unmotivated. When employees are not motivated, they do not put in enough effort to achieve their goals and hence their performance is not fine. The employees who have mastered the production process are not worried about accomplishing their goals because they know that even with added effort if they attain their goals, the compensation they will get is not worth the effort. Other employees, who have not mastered it, are not putting in enough effort because they think they are not capable of doing so. Therefore there is a dire need for motivation of the employees who are under Supervisor A. The supervisor should find out what resources, training or management of employees is needed to motivate the employees; this is the expectancy component of the expectancy theory. The supervisor should also find out what do the employees value, their bonuses and salaries should be increased according to their performance; this is the valence part of the expectancy theory. Supervisor also has to make sure that the perception of the employees about their supervisor’s promises is correct, they should be compensated as promised; this is the instrumentality component. In the scenario, the employees’ salaries are not being increased as promised by the supervisor; their bonuses after withholding tax are very small. Thus if the supervisor is able to fill the gaps in all of these three components, he will be able to motivate the employees to increase effort and hence performance and the goals will be achieved.The leadership style of Leader B is transactional, Leader C is transformational and Executive has a â€Å"Level 5† leadership style. Transactional leadership focuses on setting specific goals for each team member and encourage them to meet th e agreed upon goals (Bryant, 2003). In the scenario it is given that Leader B establishes clear goals by clarifying role and task requirements and continually guiding subordinates in the direction of these goals, and therefore it is a characteristic of transactional leadership. In transactional leadership, the team members are awarded when they are able to achieve their goals on time and punished when agreed upon goals are not achieved or are not achieved on time (Iain, 2007). In the scenario given, Leader B considers the team member to be personally at fault if the delegated task is not completed and issues punishments for failures. Transactional leadership recognizes accomplishments of individual subordinates and they are rewarded for achieving the objectives agreed upon (Iain, 2007). In the scenario given, Leader B believes in a clear chain of commands and in rewarding good performance and recognizing employee accomplishments. Leader B also rewards subordinates for their successes. Leader B’s transactional leadership style has been justified now by including the examples from the given text.Transformational leadership depends more on personal relationship with subordinates and is supported by trust rather than committing to contracts (Jung Avoli o, 1999). In the scenario it is given that Leader C tried to remember his team members’ birthdays and makes an effort to work with them as their coach instead of their manager. Transformational leadership also tries to satisfy its followers’ self-interest and encourages the followers to replace these interests with the interests of the team. In the scenario, Leader C encourages the group to surpass their own self-interest for the betterment of the organization. This type of leadership also focuses   on organizational change through stress on new values and different vision of the future which transcends the status quo (Gellis, 2001). Leader C in the scenario also believes that the group can have great success when they are passionate and enthusiastic about a vision. Transformational leaders motivate its followers to achieve their goals through nurturing their individual skills and capabilities (Barbuto, 2005). Leader C in the scenario sets high hopes for subordinates, instills individualism of employees for the benefit of organization and takes a rational problem-solving approach. The Level 5 leadership is described as being hesitant and unruly, shy and fearless and modest with a stern commitment to high standards (Jon Jenkins and Gerrit Visser, 2001). This type of leadership takes struggling organizations from being fine to great and produces other fine leaders within the organizations for future.The Level 5 leadership takes responsibility for the failures and accredits other leaders for accomplishments (Jon Jenkins and Gerrit Visser, 2001). This leadership also establishes unique ideas, long-term vision and values for the organization. In the scenario, Executive A is clearly a level 5 leader as he shies away from attention and accredits others for achievements. He accepts responsibility for failures and poor results; and feels delighted to produce strong leadership within the organization. Therefore it is apparent that Executive A is a Level 5 leader as he took the struggling organization into hands and reshaped the stock prices and company profits into eye -catching ones and he also shares his long-term vision, ideas and values with other leaders of the company. When the Executive A retires and if Leader B is appointed as the CEO, then most of the employees in the organization will start working for their own interest as they will be held responsible for their failures and accomplishments and will be compensated accordingly. Supervision of the employees will become an integral part of managers’ routine as they may use   organization’s resources for their personal interests. Transactional leadership is successful in stable organizations because it helps to improve control over employees and reinforces constructive administrative actions through rewards and punishments. Therefore Leader B may find his style appropriate in the organization. Transformational leadership maintains employees’ performance through loyalty to organization, trust in the leader and changes in values and standards of the organization. Leader C has this style of leadership, and if appointed the CEO, the employees will surely have higher motivation a nd self-confidence; they will get chances and supervision to improve their skills and capabilities. Through self-realization of employees and personal relationships with them, Leader C will be able to make them feel an integral part of the organization and increase their performance beyond expectations. Task 3Individuals often take one of the bases of power in an organization in which they are employed. There are five bases of power which act as a source of organization; they will be discussed one by one. The first one is Position in Hierarchy (Woldring, 2001), that is the rank of the individual in an organization. The higher the individual’s place in the organizational rank structure, the greater the power he will have. In the given scenario, Employee 1 is using position in hierarchy as the source of his power. He has worked in the marketing department for 12 years and he frequently comes to the office on weekends or stays late to make sure smooth running of tasks. The second base of power is Referent Power (Woldring, 2001); this is the personal relation of an individual with others who are higher in the organizational hierarchy. It only exists if the individual can actually reference the authenticity of relationship so that it can act as a basis of power. Employee 2 has this power as he negotiated with his manager to work four days a week and is the only person who is allowed to have a shorter work week. Third type of power is Reward Power (Raven, 1959); individuals who have a greater degree of control over resources of organization, have greater power. Individuals even lower in the organizational hierarchy can have greater controller over resources of the organization (Woldring, 2001). This power is based on the ability to give valuable reward to others who perform well (Raven, 1959). In the scenario given, Employee 1 has this power as he is controlling the resources of his department to get the large bonus at the year end, and he will spend this bonus on his vacations. The fourth base of power is Demonstrated Expertise (Woldring, 2001); an individual who has an exceptional capability or special knowledge that no other has in the organization. Only having expertise is not sufficient, others should know about the importance of this person’s expertise and its value. Employee 2 has this power as he is the only company employee who can prepare financial statements. The fifth and final source of power is Personality Power or Coercive Power (Woldring, 2001); the perceived personality of the individual is the power here. If the person has strong interpersonal skills, charming and attractive personality, then he will be able to influence others to conform to his ideas or demands (Raven, 1959). This is the case with Employee 3, who has been in the organization for just a year, but because of his personality power, he was able to change entire department’s beliefs.Relationship between Bases of Power and Dependency:The Bases of Power use the concept of Dependency. An employee can only use its base of power on another employee if the other one is dependent on him. As Emerson (1962, p. 32) argues that â€Å"power resides implicitly in the other‘s dependency† and that â€Å"the power of A over B is equal to, and based upon, the dependence of B upon A†. Therefore if a person B is dependent   of another person A, only then the power of A exists. The level of power of person A depends upon the degree of dependence of person B on person A and the alternatives available to person B. If there is no dependence then power over another person does not exists. The accounting manager in the given scenario is the person who is dependent upon Employee 2 because of the Expertise power of Employee 2. Employee 2 is the only person in the organization who can prepare the financial statements and so the manager is dependent upon him to prepare it. Employee 1 is dependent upon marketing manager for the award he wants, that is why he stays late in the office to make sure of the completion and accuracy of the work and he often come to office on weekends. Employee 3 was selected as the leader of the team working on new project; all others related to the project are dependent upon him because of his Coercive power. Conclusion The first problem with the company’s current evaluation form is that the rating scales in the form mostly focus on relationships with other employees and on the personality; it is more of a personality test rather than performance and skills evaluation. Instead of evaluating the neatness of the workplace, relationships with peers, attitude with others and friendliness, the questions should be more specific to the performance and quality of work. Performance factors such as knowledge, skills, abilities, quality and timeliness of work, efforts of the employee, works habits, supervisory factors, cooperation, adaptability and effectiveness of communication should be evaluated. The second concern in the evaluation form is that the rating scales are not specific and measurable. The scale being used is to rate an attribute is not numeric or scalar, high, low-medium, medium are being used to score against the attribute. A better approach of scoring will be to use a scale with numeric scale, the highest described as â€Å"Superior† and lowest   as â€Å"Unsatisfactory†. Another option of â€Å"Not Applicable† should also be present with all attributes. The use of measurable scale will ease the work for evaluator and he will be able to rate the employee’s attributes more accurately. The third concern in the evaluation form is that the performance factors are not specific. When the manager had to give rating on the engineer’s attitudes, he had to take in to account the engineer’s attitudes towards his job and tasks that he is assigned to do and also his attitudes towards co-workers and manager. The factors should be more specific so that the evaluator can give the ratings to specific attribute and every attribute is taken into account. In the scenario, the manager gave engineer a low rating in the attitude factor although his attitude towards work was very s erious and he completed his tasks in a very well manner. He got a low rating because of his poor attitude towards the peers and manager.The 360-degree approach to employee evaluation involves supervisor, peers, and subordinates into the evaluation of an individual. This approach has its own pros and cons. Many people participate in evaluating a person so it gives complete view of the performance of the person. The performance view is captured from the supervisor, peers and the subordinates, they respond as they see the person’s performance. It reduces the bias of the supervisor or the manager towards an employee. It the supervisor does not likes the attitude of appearance of the employee, and then he might rate the employee with a lower score. If the employee’s attitude with the supervisor is not favorable but the peers and subordinates like the attitude of the employee, then this can be captured in the evaluation process. Many people participate in the evaluation process, so the score becomes more reliable and more accurate. The supervisor may not have a personal relation with the employee and may not know him too well to rate his personality and attitude towards work. It is also possible that the employee have had some kind of incident with the supervisor in the past and since then the attitude towards the employee had   become unfavorable. Then the supervisor would obviously rate him low in the performance factors. Most of the times in an organization, peers and co-workers know the employee better than the supervisor; so when the peers will evaluate the employee, they will be able to give the ratings more accurately and their ratings will be more reliable than any others. The attitude of a person towards his s ub-ordinates is also very important, this attitude can be recorded when subordinates will take part in the evaluation process of the employee. And then after the evaluation, the employee can leverage his strengths according to others’ perception of his performance and personality. So, 360-degree approach to performance evaluation helps in evaluating the employee from many views and in recording reliable and more accurate information then the traditional forms of evaluations and is not only helpful to the management to make important decisions but also is useful to the person being evaluated .There are some disadvantages too of including the supervisor, peers and subordinates in the evaluation process. One of the main disadvantages is that all the peers and subordinates may not like the personality of the employee being evaluated and may rate him very low based on his attitude and personality. The main purpose of evaluating an employee is to evaluate the performance and skills and attitude towards the work and tasks assigned to him. The co-workers and subordinates may have issues with employee being evaluated because of personality clash, and although his work is up to the mark and performance is well, but still the peers, supervisor and subordinates might give him low score on performance. There are a handful of employee performance evaluation methods; three of them are topdown, peer-to-peer and 360-degree. Top-down is the most commonly used in the organizations today. It involves the direct manager of the employee in the evaluation process and is only useful if the manager knows his employee well enough.

Sample College Admission Essay

Sample College Admission EssayEven with the benefits of completing your college application, it is important to research the benefits of applying for and completing samples college admission essays. These samples will show you how to craft an excellent essay, complete with sample sentences that can be applied to your college essay, without the assistance of a writer program.When it comes to filling out a sample college admission essay, the first step is to first brainstorm the idea, in order to determine the problem or dilemma that the college is attempting to solve, and then, research how to answer this problem in a powerful and concise manner. You may consider taking the other person's point of view in order to better articulate your own. Although some admissions officers will require a sample, others will accept one that meets their particular needs.A college admission essay can take up to 20 minutes to complete. In fact, this length may vary according to the style, topic, and pur pose of the writing sample. As with any writing project, samples can take anywhere from one to three weeks to complete. This time frame is within the norm, since most college essays do not exceed one hundred pages.This next step is to research the many types of samples available for use in your college admission essay. Many of these are published online, while some will be from admissions officers who might have other needs.After creating your college admission essay, you should review and practice it on a paper to ensure that you are speaking with clarity and from a position of authority. It is also important to thoroughly check and double-check your writing sample to ensure that you are submitting your college admission essay correctly.By completing a college admissions essay, it will serve to open doors to doors that otherwise may have been closed to you. The writer may become an influential advisor to your future college experience. It is also important to make sure that your co llege essay reflects your strong academic profile, such as AP credits, or a desire to gain access to a better career after graduation.Finally, since college admissions essays can be included in letters of recommendation, they are an excellent tool for both teens and adults. As a teen, when a high school graduate is recommended for a good job, your name is sure to be on the list. As an adult, you will be able to use the services of a writing program to help you tailor your college admission essay to meet college requirements.

Compare and contrast how realism through television influences the audience The WritePass Journal

Compare and contrast how realism through television influences the audience Introduction Compare and contrast how realism through television influences the audience IntroductionReferencesRelated Introduction The analysis which will follow will look at the British television drama, in particular looking at the different codes of realism and how it uses different techniques to draw upon this. The comparing and contrasting of how realism through television influences the audience will also be discussed. In addition to this, a brief overview of the analysis will be discussed using the examples; Coronation Street (1960) and Shameless (2004), considering the class and gender issues thoroughly.â€Å"for, in my view, television is from its very nature, more suitable for the dissemination of all kinds of information than for entertainment as such, since it can scarcely be expected to complete successfully with films in that respect. Nevertheless, the lighter forms of entertainment will certainly have their place.†(Gerald Cock, 1936, pg. 7) The view of television that emerges from Cock (1936) shows the assumptions that have been made in the early decades about the function of television. When television is first apparent, what is noticed the most is the assertion of immediacy; being a continuing theory appearing throughout the analysis of television. According to Cock (1936), the effect that this theory has is one of the factors that gives British television drama its iconic form; individualising this genre of television from cinema and the drama programmes that were scheduled in the United States of America. One factor of realism to consider is social realism. This is the struggle of socialism, influenced by the level of social development surrounding the subject in hand. This is in comparison to critical realism. According to Lukcs (1963), social realism differs from critical realism. Socialist society is seen as an independent one, not simply there to be as a support for capitalist society. An example that effectively shows realism through television drama is Shameless (2004). This hybrid television programme has aspects of a soap drama; in the mixture of social realism that is consistently displayed throughout the different storylines. This popular television programme is surrounding family life and the dramas which occur on a day-to-day life, within challenging conditions. The drama is set in the outer suburbs of Manchester on a disadvantaged estate; showing real situations through a fictional narrative, in a comedic way. In terms of the drama, Nelson (2007) suggests that Shameless (2004) resembles a sitcom type television programme to a serial drama. This can be apparent through many continuing narratives throughout the programme. An example of this can be that all of the episodes throughout the series begin in the exact same way by hearing Frank Gallagher’s voice-over that introduces his family and their life on Chatsworth Estate; the sense of a sitcom being that Frank never changes throughout. This factor brings comedy to the television programme as it carries a significant comic irony, as the name of the estate is the same as the stately home of that name. This portrays to the audience that Frank Gallagher is one of the main protagonists in Shameless (2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚   When referring back to realism throughout television, Shameless (2004) has many issues that are addressed through the narrative. One of the ways this television programme is effective in portraying realism is that the writer, Paul Abbott draws upon his own experiences of growing up in a chaotic household; giving the material and narratives written a huge sense of realism. This is also because Abbott writes from an insider on the social experiences, rather than an observer looking on from the outside. â€Å"The deserting parents, the teenage pregnancies, the lack of legitimate income, the criminal sentencesChaos became the norm and our threshold for tolerating up-heaval was tested to the nth degreeBits of that life were unmissable.† (Paul Abbott, channel4.com/programmes/shameless, 2005) A code is a sign or signal which gives a sense of meaning to communication. According to Bernadette Casey (2008), the codes that are made up are used as a set of rules, according to the context and the culture it is within. Examples of codes that everyone can relate to can be simple codes like traffic lights on the roads to more complex codes like different languages from around the world. Within television studies, the term ‘code’ means to seek ‘unexplored audio-visual systems which have the capacity to construct and organise meaning in media texts’ (Casey, 2008, pg. 38). John Fiske (1987) also attempts to discuss media and television codes, beginning to argue that reality is already encoded culturally; therefore aspects like dress and behaviour are influenced by culture. He also states that technical codes influence that camera to manipulate how different characters on camera are represented to the audience. The concept of representation is closely influenced by the aspect of reality when linked to television. Richard Dyer (1985) outlined an approach on representation. When the audience watch a television programme, they become absorbed in the context of the narrative. For example: a character’s role or position on the camera. He also argues that in order for the audience to engage their interest in a particular television programme, then the media representations of that programme must provide some sort of pleasure from it. However, a criticism to this argument is that the assumption is made that the audience watching shares the enjoyment equally, which is not always accurately the case. Many social differences shown on television make certain that each viewer will experience a different level of pleasure. Some of these social differences that influence viewer’s pleasure levels are ethnicity, class, gender, age and sexual orientation. This therefore links onto one social a spect of television that is being discussed, with the support of examples. Class can be understood through television in two ways; first by analysing the history of the concept and the theories that surrounds it and secondly, the way in which the different classes have been represented throughout television. According to Karl Marx (1983), the term ‘class’ has a number of complex meanings; referring first and foremost to economic and social position, and the power and status that is gained as a result from this. He also argued that society is split into two large sections; those who own the means of production (capitalists) and those who work for the production (proletariats). With Marx’s theory in support, the ‘base/superstructure’ model was invented, resting on the ideas that the class structure or economy (the base) determined all other aspects of what we may call culture (the superstructure). Even though Karl Marx’s research was before the time of television, more recent researchers link Marx’s theories to m ore recent television theories relating to class structures. When audiences are offered television, it is linked to supporting capitalism and ruling-class ideology. For example: most news channels on television focus on subjects surrounding international finance, world markets and domestic industrial conflict. This therefore showing a more upper-class agenda. The notion of economic class has been made additional to the ideas surrounding social class; being used as a significant way in enhancing market research tasks for advertising purposes and throughout television industries. This is to determine and profile specific audiences. Social class groups are based on lifestyle choices, spending power and income. In the United States of America, class went through a transition of being unaware for audiences within television. This was partly influenced by the anti-communist fever of the Cold War period. This according to Casey (2008) marginalised class. Wilson (1980) also supported this n otion by stating that the absence of working-class characters on television had received less attention than other issues portrayed on television programmes. Some of these include: gender and race. There is some previous research that supports the class representation throughout television programmes. Butsch (1995) conducted a survey of prime-time television in the United States of America. The findings were that over four decades analysed, there was a consistent under-representation of working-class occupations and an over-representation on more highly professional and managerial occupations. This shows that audiences prefer wealth and glamour, and that lower-class representations have a negative connotation on television programmes. One example that will be used to analyse the way the representation of class is highlighted throughout is the British television drama Shameless (2004). This popular television programme, as explained above is surrounding family life and the dramas which occur on a day-to-day life, within challenging conditions. The drama is set in the outer suburbs of Manchester on a disadvantaged estate; showing real situations through a fictional narrative, in a comedic way. The television drama is seen as somewhat of a tradition, as the writer Paul Abbott aimed to expose the more disadvantaged estates in contemporary Britain; succeeding extremely well, with the audience often laughing rather than being sympathetic or feeling concerned for the different characters within Shameless (2004). However, for some viewers watching the working-class origins, they feel some discomfort as they feel that they are being made to laugh at their own life. This is because they think that there is a increasing leve l of social realism throughout as there is a sense of mockery in the social problems of challenging circumstances in the narrative that are raised. â€Å"traditional social realism takes the colour out of working-class life, Abbott restores it in a new hybrid of stylesquestioning whether the hybridisation and upbeat treatment typical of contemporary television dilutes any potential political impact. Patently, the anarchic comedy of Shameless differs from the ‘serious’ docu-drama treatments of earlier examples of social issues television.† (Nelson, 2007, pg. 50)   Another example that successfully displays the issues of class and social differences is the iconic British soap opera; Coronation Street (1960). With the support of Geraghty (1991), this soap opera concentrates on the workings of this are the accents of the different characters changing and becoming less regional and broader. Another example of the social changes that happen throughout the narrative is when the factory got demolished and replaced with houses to accommodate the changes in the narrative and with that, the new characters that may join the soap and the storylines. Characters such as the iconic and well known Ken Barlow, achieving the middle-class role when he aspired to be a student also shows the shift in the class structure as society moved on throughout the different decades. Another code of representation that is often used through narratives of many television programmes is the ideas surrounding gender. Gender is similar to representation, in that there have been many theories and debates surrounding this subject. The terms ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ are used on many occasions when referring to cultural and social aspects of gender. This is compared to the terms ‘male’ and ‘female’ being used to describe biological sex. When referring to gender representation within television, scholars state that starting from the 1970’s, gender through television was focused on the representation of femininity. This was through audiences seeing images of female characters or feminine personalities in either fictional programmes or news programmes. However, there are some researchers that argue against the above statement; stating that gender is not defined through characters and television personalities alone. According to Allen and Hill (2004), in order for gender to be analysed successfully throughout television, it needs to be considered through all genres. Some examples that are mentioned are talk shows, melodramas and soap operas. This links onto the example soap opera that is being analysed for using gender issues consistently throughout the narratives; Coronation Street (1960). One of the most famous, yet controversial storylines that was to be shown in this soap during the late 1990’s is the Hayley storyline of being a transsexual; questioning her sexuality and indeed her gender, where the progression in the storyline sees Hayley fulfil her dream at having a sex-change operation and gender readjustment. Granada successfully portrayed this sensitive subject as they allowed the audience to get to know the character Hayley before allowing the storyline to progress. This was seen as being a controversial storyline of its time as it was before the watershed, therefore setting itself up for audience complaints. However, they shown this story by representing a man who has gender corrective surgery to become a woman, by the character being actually played by a woman; adding a sense of realism to the narrative. By introducing the character of Hayley first for the audience to get to know and recognise, they reached a happy ending with the audience by experien cing the gender change with Hayley. What we can therefore conclude from the analysis that has been made is that throughout the television drama history, there has been many issues that are consistently highlighted throughout different narratives of the different television programmes, that television audiences can relate to; therefore making some television aspects more popular than others. This has been successfully portrayed through the representing codes of gender and class and how through different storylines and characters, can sustain realism; being the popularity aspect that allows the audience watching to relate to what is being shown. As well as previous literature being compared and contrasted for support, the uses of examples such as television drama Shameless (2004) and the iconic British soap opera Coronation Street (1960) shows just how these codes of representation are used throughout, being a successful technique in ensuring their popularity amongst audiences is kept to a consistently high standard thro ughout each episode and each series. Word count: 2,539 References Allen, R. and Hill, A. (Eds) The Television Studies Reader. (London: Routledge, 2004). Bignell, J. and Lacey, S. (Eds) Popular Television Drama: Critical Perspectives. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005). Bignell, J. and Lacey, S. and Macmurraugh-Kavanagh, M. (Eds) British Television Drama: Past, Present and Future. (New York: Palgrave Publishers, 2000). Caughie, J. (Ed) Television Drama: Realism, Modernism, and British Culture. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000). Casey, B. and Calvert, B. (Eds) Television Studies: The Key Concepts. (Oxon: Routledge, 2008). Corner, J. (Ed) Popular Television In Britain. (London: British Film Institute, 1991). Geraghty, C. (Ed) Women and Soap Opera: A Study of Prime Time Soaps. (Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd, 1991). Hobson, D. (Ed) Soap Opera. (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2003). Levine, G. (Ed) Realism and Representation: Essays on the Problem of Realism in Relation to Science, Literature, and Culture. (London: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1993). Lukcs, G. (Ed) The Meaning of Contemporary Realism. (Great Britain: Whitstable Litho Ltd, 1963). Munt, S. (Ed) Queer Attachments: The Cultural Politics of Shame. (Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2007). Nelson, R. (Ed) State Of Play: Contemporary â€Å"High-End† TV Drama. (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007). Coronation Street. 1960 [DVD] United Kingdom: ITV. Shameless. 2004 [DVD] United Kingdom: Channel 4.   Websites CHANNEL 4. (2011) Shameless (2004) [online]. (no date) [cited on 10th May 2011] channel4.com/programmes/shameless

Discover 8 ways to side-hustle online

Discover 8 ways to side-hustle online Eight ways to side-hustle online There’s nothing more desired for a student than an effortless side-hustle that won’t keep him or her running low on the budget. One thing you will need is basically an internet connection. Start earning! Matching Bets One of the easiest ways to get fast cash with minimum investment. Technically, you don’t use your own money, and you don’t lose anything. You don’t need to have smarts to understand the ground rules, neither do you need to know the betting terminology. To put it simply, multiple betting websites in the US offer free vouchers for your sign up, and they also send you offers like free $5 bet. This is where your money lies, once you get your hands on the free bet deals, you will make a bet against yourself, but on a different gambling outlets. In this way, your betting both for and against an outcome on two separate platforms, and since for each win you get an additional money bonus, you cannot be ripped off. Some matching tools can help you see where the bets are pretty much similar or nearly identical, so it helps you evaluate the best match and bet on it. With matching bets, you can earn as much as $1500! Online Surveys It’s an attractive ground for people who wish to earn extra pocket money in a snap. Research companies are always in need of honest opinion from people about a new product launch or on a topic of social matters. You can earn up to $5 for completing a single survey. The more online surveys you’ll find the more money you can get by answering multiple questions on different websites. As a rule, you have to reach a certain amount of money before you can withdraw them, so be aware that each site applies its own rules. Web Surfing The most effortless way to earn money yet! You just have to do what you already do, literally use the internet. Simply register on one of the websites that offer money for clicking the links and start earning by randomly clicking on every ad that you see on the websites. The more click - the more you earn. Then you can easily transfer your money to the PayPal account and withdraw them.    Market Trading This might be complicated at some point, but once you get ahold of the basics, it can bring you a big buck in a minute. For the beginners, several online stock markets offer free practice accounts, so that you can get to learn some general ideas and make your first trade with guides. Unlike any other way of making money online, the stock markets are extremely risky regarding losing your money if you make a mistake. So, in this case, it’s better to manipulate little amounts of money and be very careful with your decisions. Best to research the whole industry and get to learn from others before trading a lot of money! Set up your own Website Create your small business online with little effort and reap the benefits a real boss. Building your website is not as difficult as it might seem at first sight, but you still need a good foundation before you start for sure. And also, you’ll need to have some startup money, but it’s a worthwhile investment. Start your website in three simple steps: Buy a domain name Order web hosting service Create your design When everything is set up, use the power of social networks to advertise your business. And when you get ahold of the techniques and strategies, you’ll get top traffic sales. Review websites apps for cash Yet another simple way to earn money without digesting too many guides. Turn into a website tester and get $10 per site. You really need nothing more than an updated laptop, decent internet connection and a basic English knowledge. As a tester, you need to determine whether a website is user-friendly regarding design, navigation, quality, and ease-of-use for an average visitor. By the end of your review, you should make a small report in a written form describing all the pros and cons of the website. â€Å"Get Paid to† websites These sites offer you such activity as clicking the ads, taking mini tasks and passing surveys for money, it’s pretty much everything you can do online collected all together. You can choose from a variety of tasks and collect your bounty. Make sure to find legit websites that are not just another scam! Write and publish a Kindle eBook Did you know that you can publish an eBook and make money with the Amazon Kindle store? Today, almost any device supports Kindle app, making your audience huge. Even by setting the tiniest price on your book, you will still earn passively. Start with creating valuable content that anyone will learn from, e.g., Eight Ways to Make Money Online, and then conduct your research. Once you get everything arranged and settled, your book will be bringing you profit for years to come!

Drug addiction Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Drug addiction - Research Paper Example Drug addiction has negative consequences to both individuals and society. One of the main consequences is the increased burden to the community and individuals (Conrad & Anggard, 1977). Moreover, drug abuse affects the health status of the individual and other forms of their social life. This paper seeks to focus on drug addiction. Drug Addiction Drug addiction is a persisting problem and affects the brains resulting into compulsive drug seeking and use even when there are negative outcomes to the individual and society (NIDA, 2011). Initially, individual take the drug for casual, recreation, leisure, or entertainment. However, continuous use of the drug affects the brain in a way that the affected individual is unable to overcome the temptation of taking more drugs. Treatment is available for this condition. Most of the treatments are behavior oriented coupled with appropriate recommendations. Most of the treatment focuses on changing the social behavior of the individual involved. This means drug addiction can be managed successful reducing further damage to the individual involved. The management of drug addiction is similar to those of other chronic diseases (Conrad & Anggard, 1977. This means such care requires more attention and absolute obedience to the individuals undergoing such form of therapy. Effects of Drugs to the Brain The problem of drug addiction starts from the brain. Drugs contain chemicals that affect the brain communication system and configure the nerve cells (NIDA, 2011). This happens in two ways. They mimic the brain natural messengers and overstimulation of brain functioning system (NIDA, 2011). Some drugs have similar components as the chemical messengers found in the body. These chemical messengers are known as the neurotransmitters. Such drugs include cannabis and heroine. These drugs configure the brain receptors and stimulate the nerve cells to send abnormal messages (NIDA, 2011). Other drug causes abnormal production of chemical messengers in the brain. An example of such drug is cocaine. They prevent the normal recycling of the brain chemicals that are supposed to stop connections between neurons (NIDA, 2011). This disfigures dopamine that is responsible for controlling movement, emotion, motivation, and feelings of pleasure (NIDA, 2011). This leads to ecstatic events in response t o psychoactive drugs. Consequently, such individuals are accustomed to repeating the beneficial behavior of abusing drugs. Those that abuse such drugs are unable to enjoy the drugs and other events in life. Consequently, this decrease in satisfaction forces leads to more use of drug in order to maintain the function of dopamine to normality (NIDA, 2011). This means high amount of drug is required to maintain normalcy. In addition, other changes occur in the brain due to continued abuse of drugs. Such change affects the glutamate. The neurotransmitter affects the system functionality and the ability to learn (NIDA, 2011). When the normal amount of the neurotransmitter is affected by drug abuse, the brain tries to bring normalcy, and this may reduce the cognitive function (NIDA, 2011). This defect has been shown to affect brain processes such as learning and memory (NIDA, 2011). These challenges make the abusers seek out and continually use drugs even when there are widespread

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

STRATEGIC ANALYSIS - Assignment Example The evaluation helps them to know in which program to concentrate their effort to maximize their productivity. As the organization grew, the need for this assessment became critical. This made the sustainability of the organizational growth a problem. The organization faced the management and strategy issue, which also plagues other non-profit organizations. Any organization that lacks machinery to evaluate its programs, cannot know how effective those programs are or how productive they are in terms of delivering their objectives. This means that it cannot clearly demonstrate the commitment it has to its mission and it will be difficult for such an organization to secure long term funding from the funders. An organization such as HCZ with a mission to educate a poor child in Harlem, must know the long-term goals it has and should be in a position to explain clearly to the funders how they are planning to meet their objectives. This will convince the funder to give it the support it requires to continue growing. Fundamentally, the organization should find a way to manage their setups to a success level. It needed an instrument to assess the working programs and discover areas to work more in the organization to increase productivity. Finding a long term funding will enable them grow and achieve their mission and objectives. How to solve the resource problem is of essence especially at this time when some of Hcz’s primary funders such as various clients of Bernie Madoff and Lehman Brothers Holdings are going through financial crisis. (Spector, 98). Canada laid off staff members because of this issue. This is an obstacle to expanding services of the organization. HCZ is a good social asset. The problem that rocks it is how to protect funding from private sectors. For instance, when HCZ was planning 2003 budget, it allocated $11,300 annual spending per student in the promise academy. Funding crises forced the

Is Sugar Addiction a Substance Use Disorder?

Is Sugar Addiction a Substance Use Disorder? An Examination of Sugar Addiction as a Substance Use Disorder Abstract In the last decade, many studies have supported the addictive nature of sugar. In this examination of sugar addiction, we explore the parallels with substance abuse disorder and highlight the effects on the brain and body as well as the psychological and biological risk factors that may make an individual vulnerable to sugar addiction. We theorize that defining sugar addiction as a substance abuse disorder in a future version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) will change policy to improve public health, and minimize the costs of metabolic disorders like diabetes, obesity, and heart disease on the economy. Keywords: sugar addiction, substance use disorder, dopamine, impulsivity, obesity Worldwide obesity rates are rapidly rising. In 2016, an estimated 30% of Americans over the age of 18, and almost 20% of young adults were overweight or obese, as defined by a body mass index (BMI) greater than 30 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016); and they are projected to increase to 80% by 2023 (Wang, Beydoun, Liang, Caballero, & Kumanyika, 2008). Between 29% and 47% of obese individuals meet the criteria for binge eating disorders (BED) (McCuen-Wurst, Ruggieri, & Allison, 2017). However, we suggest in this review of the literature that the food addiction model is a more appropriate mechanism when looking at correlates and causes of the development of eating disorders and metabolic disorders, including insulin resistance, diabetes, and obesity. The DSM-5 criteria for BED is limited in that it focuses largely on behavior, distress and shame caused by the eating disorder, and lacks acknowledgment of the neurobiological vulnerabilities and effects (American Psychiatric Association, 2013a). Alternatively, the food addiction model proposes that food, especially highly palatable, processed foods that are high in sugar, fat and/or salt are addictive (Davis & Carter, 2014), and therefore may be the underlying cause of BED and metabolic disorders, including obesity. For this examination, we mainly focus on the addictive nature of sugar, as the majority of food addiction studies have shown that sugar intake is more addictive than fat or salt, and highlight the numerous biological and psychological parallels to substance (Avena, Bocarsly, Rada, Kim, & Hoebel, 2008; Avena, Rada, & Hoebel, 2008; Davis, Loxton, Levitan, Kaplan, Carter, & Kennedy, 2013; Hoebel, Avena, Bocarsly, & Rada, 2009; Hone-Blanchet & Fecteau, 2014; Ifland, Preuss, Marcus, Rourke, Taylor, Burau, Jacobs, Kadish, & Manso, 2009; Page & Melrose, 2016; Tran & Westbrook, 2017; Wong, Dogra, & Reichelt, 2017). It is well known that addictive drugs activate the dopaminergic reward pathway. The mesocorticolimbic pathway, which includes the ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens (NAc) and the frontal cortex, is especially implicated in the reinforcement of the use of these substances. These areas release high levels of dopamine, which produce a euphoric state, and help form â€Å"liking† motivations and positive associations toward the addictive substances. However, as the drug is repeatedly consumed, tolerance builds in the body, and â€Å"liking† becomes â€Å"wanting,† resulting in reduced pleasure, and physiological dependence that necessitates increased consumption (Reeve, 2015). Food addiction studies have shown that while a variety of foods lead to the release of dopamine, sugar activates the dopaminergic pathway in a way that mirrors addictive substances, and leads to bingeing, tolerance, cravings, dependence, and subsequent withdrawal symptoms when deprived (American Psychiatric Association, 2013b; Avena et al., 2008; Davis & Carter, 2014; Davis et al., 2013). As sugar is over-consumed, tolerance grows and bingeing with increased amounts of sugar are needed to obtain the same pleasurable effect. This is suggested to be due to the down-regulation of dopamine receptors (Avena et al., 2008; Davis, Patte, Levitan, Reid, Tweed, & Curtis, 2007; Hoebel et al., 2009; Ifland et al., 2009, Loxton & Tipman, 2017). Thereafter, â€Å"wanting† or cravings are suggested to be due to the imbalance of hormone signals that results in high anticipation and high sensitivity to sugar when it is consumed. In a study conducted by Lindqvist, Baelemans, and Erlanson-Albertsson (2008), rats that were given a sugar solution showed a 40% increase in ghrelin, the hormone that triggers appetite; in contrast to a significant decrease in leptin and peptide YY, two hunger-suppressing hormones; and a significant down-regulation in mRNA expression of additional hunger-suppressing peptides. This imbalance of appetite hormones and gene expression were hypothesized to have resulted in bingeing and tolerance, as demonstrated by a doubling of the drink consumption compared to control-group rats given water. Lastly, animal studies on sugar addiction have shown that sugar withdrawal mimics opioid withdrawal, and presents with depression and anxiety when deprivation of sugar occurs (Avena et al., 2008; Avena, Rada, & Hoebel, 2008; Hoebel et al., 2009; Hone-Blanchet & Fecteau, 2014; Ifland et al., 2009). The numerous studies in sugar addiction that overlap with the different stages of substance use disorders provide strong biological support for sugar addiction to be classified as a substance use disorder. Further adding to the biological susceptibility of sugar addiction, Davis et al. (2013) found enhanced dopamine transmission was due to six genetic mutations linked to the dopamine reward pathway; and that association between increased dopamine signaling and multilocus genetic profile scores was significantly higher in participants with high reward sensitivity and high risk for food addiction. These neurological changes and genetic vulnerabilities support tolerance and dependence that may result from a frequent flooding of dopamine and a reduction of receptors as seen in substance use disorders. Likewise, psychological traits like impulsivity and poor emotional regulation, have been found in both substance use disorders and sugar addiction. Impulsivity, as it relates to immediate gratification and deficits in behavioral inhibition, was positively correlated with sugar addiction. However, sensation-seeking, as an impulsive personality trait, was negatively associated with sugar addiction, and theorized to be due to the lack of arousal and stimulation from eating food; â€Å"those who are risk seeking and reward-driven might seek out experiences involving greater levels of arousal and stimulation (Pivarunas & Connor, 2015; VanderBroek-Stice, Stojek, Beach, vanDellen, & MacKillop, 2017). Poor emotional regulation and low distress tolerance were also positively associated with sugar addiction, and the consumption of sugar was hypothesized to activate the pleasure center countering the negative emotional state and further reinforcing the reward of sugar intake behavior (Kozak & Fought, 2011; Pivarunas & Connor, 2015). Equally important in the comparison between sugar addiction and substance use disorders are the detrimental effects on the brain and body’s functions, such as cognitive impairment and metabolic disorders. Reversible cognitive impairments in decision-making, motivation, spatial or place-recognition memory were recently identified in studies with rats (Tran & Westbrook, 2017; Wong, Dogra, & Reichelt, 2017). However, in a study conducted by Page and Melrose (2016), high levels of circulating sugar and insulin levels dulled food cues, reducing hypothalamic activity, and negatively affecting neural food processing, which over time increased the risk for insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and obesity. A separate study found that the overconsumption of sugar increased levels of free fatty acids, triglycerides and cholesterol in the blood (Lindqvist, Baelemans, & Erlanson-Albertsson, 2008), which are confirmed risk factors for developing in heart disease and strokes in humans (National Institute of Health, 2005; American Heart Association, 2017). The relationship between sugar addiction’s detrimental effects and long-term illness are apparent in the literature, and is analogous to the relationship between substance use and disease. Current treatment options for food or sugar addiction are limited to exercise, which addresses biological pathways; and mindfulness, which emphasizes psychological processes. Exercise serves as a protective treatment against metabolic disorders and food addiction via increases in brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF), a neurotransmitter that plays a major role in neuroplasticity, and in the regulation of food intake, physical activity, and glucose metabolism (Codella, Terruzzi, & Luzi, 2017). Whereas, mindfulness addresses the dual process model of health behavior, which states that there are interactive automatic (implicit) and controlled (explicit) psychological processes that result in addictive behavior. Implicit, automatic processes include intentions, approach and avoidance tendencies, and emotions, meanwhile explicit, controlled processes include reflective action (Hagger, Trost, Keech, Chan, & Hamilton, 2017; Tang, Posner, Rothbart, & Volkow, 2015). In 2017, Kakoschke, Kemps, & Tiggemann showed that a two-pronged approach-modification protocol successfully retrained participants to avoid unhealthy food by 1) reducing the approach bias toward unhealthy food, and 2) increasing the approach bias toward healthy food. Another study showed a high approach tendency for healthy food buffered against the stress of hunger and wanting for unhealthy food (Cheval, Audrin, Sarrazin, & Pelletier, 2017). Mindfulness was also found to regulate emotional reactivity to internal and external cues (Fisher, Mead, Lattimore, Malinowski, 2017). Unfortunately, available treatment options have low generalizable, replicable success as they fail to provide a streamlined approach to sugar addiction and/or address neurobiological vulnerabilities and negative effects. Neither sugar nor food addiction is currently defined in the DSM-5. The only consistent measure of food addiction is the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS), a survey developed in 2009, and it is used in studies reliably as its questions are based on DSM-IV addiction criteria (Gearhardt, Corbin, Brownell, 2009; Gearhardt, Corbin, Brownell, 2016). As mentioned earlier, food addiction and BED are not reciprocal disorders, therefore acknowledging sugar addiction as a substance use disorder in a future DSM may increase evidence-based research that strongly implicates genetic and brain pathways, which may lead to early prevention, reduced stigmatization and diverse treatment options that address the psychological as well as neurobiological vulnerabilities through medication, and even gene therapy. Further research and government regulation can also limit the pseudo-science funded by sugar and packaged goods companies. For example, in reviewing the literature, two studies were found that denied sugar and its addictive properties (Benton, 2010; Markus, Rogers, Brouns, & Schepers, 2017); they were funded by Coca-Cola and the World Sugar Research Organization. Similar to the studies conducted by the tobacco industry, the information countering sugar addiction can be confusing and deceptive to consumers. Government regulation of the sugar industry, like the tobacco industry can result in a decrease of sugar addiction and its harmful health effects. Lastly, there is also a large benefit to public health and the economic costs in treating sugar addiction like a substance use disorder. The costs to treat diabetes, a disease directly related to increased blood sugar levels and insulin resistance was $245 billion in 2012 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). These costs do not include comorbid diseases like obesity, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. Obesity alone is projected to cost upwards of $957 billion by 2030 (Wang et al., 2008). Therefore, prevention of these life-long metabolic disorders by addressing the addictive properties of sugar can potentially reduce the burden on global health and economic systems in a great way. References American Heart Association. (2017). Prevention and Treatment of High Cholesterol (Hyperlipidemia). Retrieved from http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/Conditions/Cholesterol/PreventionTreatmentofHighCholesterol/Prevention-and-Treatment-of-High-Cholesterol-Hyperlipidemia_UCM_001215_Article.jsp#.WhoJdNy1uUl American Psychiatric Association. (2013a). Feeding and Eating Disorders. In Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm10 American Psychiatric Association. (2013b). Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders. 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Overlap of food addiction and substance use disorders definitions: Analysis of animal and human studies. Neuropharmacology, 85, 81-90. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.05.019 Ifland, J. R., Preuss, H. G., Marcus, M. T., Rourke, K. M., Taylor, W. C., Burau, K., Jacobs, W. S., Kadish, W., & Manso, G. (2008). Refined food addiction: A classic substance use disorder. Medical Hypotheses, 72, 518-526. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2008.11.035 Kakoschke, N., Kemps, N., & Tiggemann, M. (2017). Impulsivity moderates the effect of approach bias modification on healthy food consumption. Appetite, 117, 117-125. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.06.019 Kozak, A. T., & Fought, A. (2011). Beyond alcohol and drug addiction. Does the negative trait of low distress tolerance have an association with overeating? Appetite, 57, 578-581. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.07.008 Lindqvist, A., Baelemans, A., & Erlanson-Albertsson, C. (2008). Effects of sucrose, glucose and fructose on peripheral and central appetite signals. 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In Understanding Motivation and Emotion (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Tang, Y., Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., & Volkow, N. D. (2015). Circuitry of self-control and its role in reduction addiction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(8), 439-444. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.06.007 Tran, D. M. D., & Westbrook, R. F. (2017). A high-fat high-sugar diet-induced impairment in place-recognition memory is reversible and training dependent. Appetite, 110, 61-71. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.12.010 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017). National Diabetes Statistics Report, 2017: Estimates of Diabetes and its Burden in the United States. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pdfs/data/statistics/national-diabetes-statistics-report.pdf U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System: Percent of adults aged 18 and older who have obesity. Retrieved from https://chronicdata.cdc.gov/Nutrition-Physical-Activity-and-Obesity/Percent-of-adults-aged-18-and-older-who-have-obesi/cwdv-83mi U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2005). High blood cholesterol: What you need to know. (NIH Publication No. 05-3290). Retrieved from https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/resources/heart/heart-cholesterol-hbc-what-html VanderBroek-Stice, L., Stojek, M. K., Beach, S. R. H., vanDellen, M. R., & MacKillop, J. (2017). Multidimensional assessment of impulsivity in relation to obesity and food addiction. Appetite, 112, 59-68. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.01.009 Wang, Y., Beydoun, M. A., Liang, L., Caballero, B., & Kumanyika, S. K. (2008). Will all Americans become overweight or obese? Estimating the progression and cost of the U.S. obesity epidemic. Obesity, 15(10), 2323-2330. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.351 Wong, A., Dogra, V. R., & Reichelt, A. C. (2017). High-sucrose diets in male rats disrupt aspects of decision-making tasks, motivation and spatial memory, but not impulsivity measured by operant delay-discounting. Behavioural Brain Research, 327, 144-154. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2017.03.029